Akụkọ ihe mere eme - Nanotechnology

Ugbua ihe dịka 600 BC. ndị mmadụ na-emepụta ihe owuwu nanotype, ntụgharị cementite strands na ígwè, nke a na-akpọ Wootz. Nke a mere na India, na nke a nwere ike na-atụle mmalite nke akụkọ ihe mere eme nke nanotechnology.

VI-XV s. Ihe e ji esiji ákwà ndị a na-eji n’oge a na-ese windo ndị nwere ugogbere na-eji ọla edo chloride nanoparticles, chlorides nke ọla ndị ọzọ, yana ígwè oxides.

narị afọ IX-XVII N'ọtụtụ ebe na Europe, a na-emepụta "ihe na-egbuke egbuke" na ihe ndị ọzọ na-enye ọkụ na ceramik na ngwaahịa ndị ọzọ. Ha nwere nanoparticles nke ọla, ọtụtụ mgbe ọlaọcha ma ọ bụ ọla kọpa.

XIII-xviii w. "Nchara Damaskọs" nke a na-emepụta na narị afọ ndị a, bụ nke e si na ya na-emepụta ngwá agha ọcha a ma ama n'ụwa, nwere carbon nanotubes na cementite nanofibers.

1857 Michael Faraday chọtara ọla edo kolloidal nwere agba rubi, njirimara nke nanoparticles ọla edo.

1931 Max Knoll na Ernst Ruska na-arụ microscope elektrọn na Berlin, ngwaọrụ mbụ ịhụ nhazi nke nanoparticles na ọkwa atọm. Ka ike nke eletrọn na-abawanye, ka ogologo wavele ha na-adị mkpụmkpụ ma na-abawanye mkpebi nke microscope. Ihe nlele ahụ dị na oghere ma na-ejikarị ihe nkiri igwe kpuchie ya. Oghere elektrọn na-agafe ihe a nwalere wee banye na ihe nchọpụta. Dabere na akara atụpụtara, ngwaọrụ eletrọnịkị na-emegharị onyonyo nke nlele ule.

1936 Erwin Müller, onye na-arụ ọrụ na Siemens Laboratories, chepụtara microscope nke ikuku ikuku, ụdị kachasị mfe nke microscope eletrọn. Mikroskopu a na-eji oghere eletrik siri ike maka ikuku ikuku na onyonyo.

1950 Victor La Mer na Robert Dinegar na-emepụta ntọala usoro iwu maka usoro nke inweta ihe ndị colloidal monodisperse. Nke a nyere ohere ịmepụta ụdị akwụkwọ pụrụ iche, agba na ihe nkiri dị mkpa n'ọtụtụ ụlọ ọrụ.

1956 Arthur von Hippel nke Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) chepụtara okwu ahụ bụ " engineering molecular ".

1959 Richard Feynman na-ekwu okwu na "Enwere ọtụtụ ọnụ ụlọ na ala." Malite site n'ichepụta ihe ọ ga-ewe iji dabara Encyclopædia Britannica nke dị mpịakọta 24 na pinhead, o webatara echiche nke obere ihe na ohere nke iji teknụzụ ndị nwere ike ịrụ ọrụ na ọkwa nanometer. N'oge a, o guzobere onyinye abụọ (nke a na-akpọ Feynman Prizes) maka mmezu na mpaghara a - otu puku dollar nke ọ bụla.

1960 Nkwụghachi ihe nrite mbụ wutere Feynman. O chere na a ga-achọ ọganihu nkà na ụzụ iji nweta ihe mgbaru ọsọ ya, ma n'oge ahụ, o ledara ikike nke microelectronics anya. Onye meriri bụ injinia William H. McLellan dị afọ 35. O kere moto na-atụ microgram 250, nwere ike nke 1 mW.

1968 Alfred Y. Cho na John Arthur na-emepụta usoro epitaxy. Ọ na-enye ohere ka e guzobe elu monoatomic n'ígwé site na iji semiconductor technology - uto nke ọhụrụ otu-crystal n'ígwé na kristal mkpụrụ dị adị, mbiputegharị Ọdịdị nke kristal substrate dị adị. Ọdịiche nke epitaxy bụ epitaxy nke ogige molekụla, nke na-eme ka o kwe omume idobe akwa kristal na ọkpụrụkpụ nke otu oyi akwa atomic. A na-eji usoro a na-emepụta ntụpọ quantum na ihe a na-akpọ akwa akwa.

1974 Okwu mmalite nke okwu "nanotechnology". Onye nyocha Mahadum Tokyo bụ Norio Taniguchi ji ya mee nke mbụ na ọgbakọ sayensị. Nkọwa nke physics Japanese ka na-arụ ọrụ ruo taa ma dị ka nke a: "Nanotechnology bụ mmepụta nke na-eji teknụzụ na-enye ohere ịnweta oke ziri ezi na oke obere nha, ya bụ. izi ezi nke usoro nke 1 nm.

Nleta anya nke mkpọda quantum

80s na 90s Oge mmepe ngwa ngwa nke teknụzụ lithographic na mmepụta nke kristal ultrathin. Nke mbụ, MOCVD(), bụ usoro maka itinye akwa akwa n'elu ihe site na iji ogige organometallic gas. Nke a bụ otu n'ime ụzọ epitaxial, ya mere aha ọzọ ya - MOSFE (). Usoro nke abụọ, MBE, na-enye ohere idobe akwa nanometer dị gịrịgịrị nwere ngwakọta kemịkalụ akọwapụtara nke ọma yana nkesa profaịlụ mkpokọta adịghị ọcha. Nke a ga-ekwe omume n'ihi eziokwu ahụ bụ na a na-enye ihe ndị dị na oyi akwa na mpempe akwụkwọ site na mpempe akwụkwọ dị iche iche.

1981 Gerd Binnig na Heinrich Rohrer na-emepụta microscope na-enyocha ọwara. N'iji ike nke mmekọrịta interatomic, ọ na-enye gị ohere ịnweta ihe oyiyi nke elu na mkpebi nke usoro nha nke otu atom, site na ịgafe agụba n'elu ma ọ bụ n'okpuru elu nke ihe atụ. N'afọ 1989, a na-eji ngwaọrụ ahụ emegharị atom n'otu n'otu. Enyere Binnig na Rohrer ihe nrite Nobel na Physics na 1986.

1985 Louis Brus nke Bell Labs achọpụtala colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals (ụkpụrụ quantum). A kọwapụtara ha dị ka obere oghere nke ejiri akụkụ atọ kechie ya site na ihe mgbochi nwere ike ime mgbe ihe nwere ogologo ikuku nke nha nha ntụpọ na-abanye.

Ikpuchi akwụkwọ bụ́ Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology nke C. Eric Drexler dere

1985 Robert Floyd Curl, Jr., Harold Walter Kroto, na Richard Erret Smalley chọpụtara fullerenes, ụmụ irighiri ihe mejupụtara ọnụ ọgụgụ nke carbon carbon (site na 28 ruo ihe dị ka 1500) nke na-etolite ahụ nwere oghere mechiri emechi. Njirimara kemịkalụ nke fullerenes dị n'ọtụtụ akụkụ dịka nke hydrocarbons aromatic. Fullerene C60, ma ọ bụ buckminsterfullerene, dị ka ndị ọzọ fullerenes, bụ ihe allotropic ụdị nke carbon.

1986-1992 C. Eric Drexler na-ebipụta akwụkwọ abụọ dị mkpa na ọdịnihu na-eme ka nanotechnology gbasaa. Nke mbụ, nke ewepụtara na 1986, ka a na-akpọ Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology. Ọ na-ebu amụma, n'etiti ihe ndị ọzọ, na teknụzụ ga-eme n'ọdịnihu ga-enwe ike ịchịkwa atom nke ọ bụla n'ụzọ a na-achịkwa. Na 1992, o bipụtara Nanosystems: Molecular Hardware, Manufacturing, and the Computational Idea, nke n'aka nke ya buru amụma na nanomachines nwere ike ịmụpụta onwe ha.

1989 Donald M. Aigler nke IBM na-etinye okwu ahụ bụ "IBM" - nke sitere na 35 xenon atom - n'elu nickel.

1991 Sumio Iijima nke NEC na Tsukuba, Japan, choputara carbon nanotubes, ihe owuwu cylindrical oghere. Ka ọ dị ugbu a, carbon nanotubes kacha mara amara, nke a na-eji graphene emechie mgbidi ya. Enwekwara nanotubes na-abụghị carbon na DNA nanotubes. Carbon nanotubes kacha dị gịrịgịrị dị n'usoro nke otu nanometer na dayameta ma nwee ike ịdị ogologo ọtụtụ nde ugboro. Ha nwere ike ike dị ịrịba ama na ihe ọkụ eletrik pụrụ iche, ma bụrụ ndị na-eduzi okpomọkụ. Ngwongwo ndị a na-eme ka ha bụrụ ihe na-ekwe nkwa maka ngwa na nanotechnology, electronics, optics, and material science.

1993 Warren Robinett nke Mahadum North Carolina na R. Stanley Williams nke UCLA na-ewulite usoro ihe omume mebere nke ọma jikọtara ya na microscope tunneling scanning nke na-enye onye ọrụ ohere ịhụ na ọbụna metụ atọm aka.

1998 Ndị otu Cees Dekker na Delft University of Technology na Netherlands na-ewu transistor nke na-eji carbon nanotubes. Ugbu a, ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị na-agbalị iji ihe pụrụ iche nke carbon nanotubes na-emepụta ngwá electronic dị mma na ngwa ngwa nke na-eri obere ọkụ eletrik. Nke a na-ejedebe site n'ọtụtụ ihe, ụfọdụ n'ime ha ji nwayọọ nwayọọ merie, bụ nke na 2016 dugara ndị nchọpụta na Mahadum Wisconsin-Madison ịmepụta transistor carbon nke nwere ihe dị mma karịa ụdị silicon kachasị mma. Nnyocha nke Michael Arnold na Padma Gopalan mere ka ọ bụrụ mmepụta nke carbon nanotube transistor nke nwere ike iburu okpukpu abụọ nke onye na-asọmpi silicon ugbu a.

2003 Samsung na-enweta ikike teknụzụ dị elu dabere na omume nke ion ọlaọcha microscopic, nke na-ebibi germs, ebu na ụdị nje bacteria karịrị narị isii ma gbochie mgbasa ha. Ewebatala irighiri ọla ọcha n'ime usoro nzacha ụlọ ọrụ kacha mkpa - ihe nzacha niile na ihe mkpocha uzuzu ma ọ bụ akpa.

2004 British Royal Society na Royal Academy of Engineering na-ebipụta akụkọ ahụ "Nanoscience na Nanotechnology: Ohere na ejighị n'aka", na-akpọ maka nyocha banyere ihe ize ndụ nke nanotechnology maka ahụike, gburugburu ebe obibi na ọha mmadụ, na-eburu n'uche ụkpụrụ omume na akụkụ iwu.

Ụdị Nanomotor na wiil zuru ezu

2006 James Tour, ya na otu ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị si Mahadum Rice, na-arụ otu “van” microscopic sitere na molecule oligo (phenyleneethynylene), anyụike ya bụ nke aluminom atom, na wiil ndị a bụ C60 fullerenes. Nanovehicle kwagara n'elu elu, nke nwere atom ọla edo, n'okpuru mmetụta nke mmụba okpomọkụ, n'ihi ntụgharị nke Fullerene "wheels". N'elu okpomọkụ nke 300 Celsius C, ọ gbagoro nke ukwuu nke na ndị na-ahụ maka kemịkalụ enweghịzi ike soro ya ...

2007 Technion nanotechnologists dabara na "Agba Ochie" ndị Juu dum n'ime ebe dị naanị 0,5 mm.² wafer silicon e ji ọla edo mee. Kanyere ederede a site n'ịduzi iyi gallium elekwasị anya na efere ahụ.

2009-2010 Nadrian Seaman na ndị ọrụ ibe na Mahadum New York na-emepụta usoro DNA-dị ka nanomounts nke enwere ike ịhazi ihe owuwu DNA nke sịntetịt iji "mepụta" ihe owuwu ndị ọzọ nwere ụdị na ihe ndị a chọrọ.

2013 Ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị IBM na-emepụta ihe nkiri animated nke enwere ike ilele naanị mgbe emechara ya ugboro 100. A na-akpọ ya "Nwa nwoke na Atọm Ya" ma na-ese ya na ntụpọ diatomic otu ijeri mita n'ịdị elu, nke bụ otu molekul nke carbon monoxide. Ihe nkiri a na-egosi otu nwa nwoke nke bu ụzọ na-agba bọọlụ wee mapụ na trampoline. Otu n'ime ụmụ irighiri ihe na-arụkwa ọrụ nke bọọlụ. Ihe niile na-eme n'elu ọla kọpa, na nha nke ihe nkiri ọ bụla adịghị agafe ọtụtụ iri nanometers.

2014 Ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị sitere na Mahadum Nkà na ụzụ ETH dị na Zurich enweela ihe ịga nke ọma n'ịmepụta akpụkpọ anụ nwere oghere na-erughị otu nanometer. Ọkpụrụkpụ nke ihe enwetara site na njikwa nanotechnological bụ 100 XNUMX. ugboro dị nta karịa nke ntutu isi mmadụ. Dị ka ndị otu otu ndị odee si kwuo, nke a bụ ihe porous kacha dị gịrịgịrị nke enwere ike nweta yana enwere ike nweta ya. Ọ nwere akwa abụọ nke ihe owuwu graphene nwere akụkụ abụọ. Akpụkpọ ahụ ahụ nwere ike ịgbasa, mana ọ bụ naanị na obere irighiri ihe, na-ebelata ma ọ bụ na-ejide akụkụ buru ibu kpamkpam.

2015 A na-emepụta mgbapụta molecular, ngwaọrụ nanoscale nke na-ebufe ike site n'otu molekul gaa na nke ọzọ, na-eṅomi usoro okike. Ndị nyocha na Weinberg Northwwest College of Arts and Sciences mere nhazi ahụ. Usoro a na-echetara usoro ndu na protein. A na-atụ anya na teknụzụ ndị dị otú ahụ ga-achọta ngwa ngwa na ngalaba nke biotechnology na nkà mmụta ọgwụ, dịka ọmụmaatụ, na akwara arụ ọrụ.

2016 Dị ka akwụkwọ dị n'akwụkwọ akụkọ sayensị Nature Nanotechnology si kwuo, ndị na-eme nchọpụta na Dutch Technical University Delft ewepụtala mgbasa ozi nchekwa otu atọm na-agbawa obi. Usoro ọhụrụ a kwesịrị inye ihe karịrị narị ugboro ise njupụta nchekwa dị elu karịa teknụzụ ọ bụla eji ugbu a. Ndị na-ede akwụkwọ na-ekwu na ọbụna nsonaazụ ka mma nwere ike nweta site na iji ihe atụ atọ nke ebe ihe dị na mbara igwe.

Nhazi nke nanotechnologies na nanomaterials

1. Ọdịdị nanotechnological gụnyere:

• olulu mmiri quantum, wires na ntụpọ, ya bụ. ihe owuwu dị iche iche na-ejikọta njirimara ndị a - njedebe ohere nke ihe ndị dị na mpaghara ụfọdụ site na ihe mgbochi nwere ike;
• plastik, nke a na-achịkwa usoro ya n'ogo nke ụmụ irighiri ihe ọ bụla, ekele nke ọ ga-ekwe omume, dịka ọmụmaatụ, ịnweta ihe ndị nwere ihe eji arụ ọrụ na-enwetụbeghị ụdị ya;
• eriri artificial - ihe nwere usoro ihe omimi nke ọma, nke a na-ahụkwa ya site na ihe ndị na-adịghị ahụkebe;
• nanotubes, ihe owuwu supramolecular n'ụdị cylinders oghere. Ka ọ dị ugbu a, carbon nanotubes kacha mara amara, mgbidi ya bụ nke apịaji graphene (monatomic graphite layers). Enwekwara nanotubes na-abụghị carbon (dịka ọmụmaatụ, site na tungsten sulfide) na site na DNA;
• ihe ndị a gbajiri agbaji n'ụdị uzuzu, ọka nke, dịka ọmụmaatụ, nchịkọta nke atom metal. A na-eji ọla ọcha () nke nwere ihe ndị na-egbu egbu egbu egbu n'ọtụtụ ebe n'ụdị a;
• nanowires (dịka ọmụmaatụ, ọlaọcha ma ọ bụ ọla kọpa);
• ihe emebere site na iji lithography eletrọn na ụzọ nanolithography ndị ọzọ;
• zuru oke;
• graphene na ihe ndị ọzọ akụkụ abụọ (borophene, graphene, hexagonal boron nitride, silicene, germanene, molybdenum sulfide);
• ihe mejupụtara ihe ejiri nanoparticles kwalite.

Nanolithographic elu

2. Nkewa nke nanotechnologies na usoro nke sayensị, mepụtara na 2004 site na Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD):

• nanomaterials (mmepụta na Njirimara);
• nanoprocesses (ngwa nanoscale - biomaterials bụ nke ụlọ ọrụ biotechnology).

3. Nanomaterials bụ ihe niile na-enwe ihe owuwu oge niile n'ọkwa molekụla, i.e. agafeghị 100 nanometer.

Oke a nwere ike na-ezo aka na nha ngalaba dị ka ihe bụ isi nke microstructure, ma ọ bụ na ọkpụrụkpụ nke akwa akwa enwetara ma ọ bụ dobere na mkpụrụ. Na omume, njedebe dị n'okpuru ebe a na-akpọ nanomaterials dị iche iche maka ihe ndị nwere njirimara arụmọrụ dị iche iche - a na-ejikọta ya na ọdịdị nke ihe ndị a kapịrị ọnụ mgbe ọ gafere. Site n'ibelata nha nke ihe owuwu enyere iwu, ọ ga-ekwe omume ịbawanye mma physicochemical, n'ibu, na ihe ndị ọzọ.

Enwere ike kewaa nanomaterials n'ime otu anọ ndị a:

• efu-akụkụ (ntụpọ nanomaterials) - dịka ọmụmaatụ, ntụpọ quantum, nanoparticles ọlaọcha;
• otu akụkụ - dịka ọmụmaatụ, metal ma ọ bụ semiconductor nanowires, nanorods, polymeric nanofibers;
• akụkụ abụọ - dịka ọmụmaatụ, akwa nanometer nke otu akụkụ ma ọ bụ ụdị multi-phase, graphene na ihe ndị ọzọ nwere ọkpụrụkpụ nke otu atọm;
• akụkụ atọ (ma ọ bụ nanocrystalline) - mejupụtara ngalaba kristal na mkpokọta nke usoro nwere nha nke usoro nanometers ma ọ bụ ihe mejupụtara agbakwunyere na nanoparticles.